TRACING THE EMERGENCE OF ANTIMICROBIAL-RESISTANT BACTERIA IN PUBLIC TOILETS ACROSS URBAN NIGERIA.

Abstract

The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria in environmental settings poses a growing threat to public health, especially in rapidly urbanizing regions of Nigeria. This study investigates the prevalence, resistance profiles, and genetic characteristics of AMR bacteria isolated from public toilets across six major Nigerian cities. Using a cross-sectional design, 1,080 samples were collected from 180 public toilets, including surface swabs and wastewater. Bacterial isolates such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa demonstrated high rates of multidrug resistance (MDR), with over 58% of all isolates classified as MDR. Molecular analysis identified key resistance genes, including blaCTX-M, tetA, qnrB, and blaNDM, indicating significant dissemination of clinically relevant resistance mechanisms. Resistance was most pronounced in toilets located in markets and motor parks, suggesting strong correlations with hygiene conditions and user density. These findings underscore public toilets as critical yet underrecognized reservoirs for AMR pathogens in Nigeria, highlighting the urgent need for improved sanitation infrastructure, regulatory enforcement, and environmental AMR surveillance.